{ "attribution": { "source": "legal.exploreworldai.com", "canonical": "https://legal.exploreworldai.com/api/public/v1/judgment-text?id=us:ca7-23-3162-2025-10-23", "cite_as": "NovaCopilot, legal.exploreworldai.com (https://legal.exploreworldai.com/api/public/v1/judgment-text?id=us:ca7-23-3162-2025-10-23)", "license": "https://legal.exploreworldai.com/revision", "version": "legal-2026-10-11", "fingerprint": "ewai:us:e0b409", "proof": "sha256:e497cb26c92e7d7023058476b3ce2fd6200fdc8ca66dd95b00376f294d3e9ac7", "jurisdiction": "us", "lang": "en", "publisher": "NovaCopilot by ExploreWorld Legal", "terms": "https://legal.exploreworldai.com/om" }, "brand_source": "Source: NovaCopilot", "item": { "schema_version": "1.0.0", "id": "us:ca7-23-3162-2025-10-23", "jurisdiction": "us", "lang": "en", "brand_source": "Source: NovaCopilot", "brand": { "product": "NovaCopilot", "platform": "ExploreWorldAI", "infrastructure": "ExploreWorld Legal", "infrastructure_url": "legal.exploreworldai.com", "legal_entity": "Valkiv Ventures AB", "permanent_url": "https://legal.exploreworldai.com/novacopilot", "source": "Source: NovaCopilot", "powered_by": "Powered by NovaCopilot", "license": "https://legal.exploreworldai.com/licensvillkor" }, "sections": [ { "title": "In the", "paragraphs": [] }, { "title": "United States Court of Appeals", "paragraphs": [] }, { "title": "For the Seventh Circuit", "paragraphs": [ "para_4" ] }, { "title": "No. 23-3162", "paragraphs": [ "para_6", "para_7", "para_8", "para_9", "para_10", "para_11" ] }, { "title": "Appeal from the United States District Court for the", "paragraphs": [ "para_13", "para_14", "para_15" ] }, { "title": "ARGUED NOVEMBER 14, 2024 — DECIDED OCTOBER 23, 2025", "paragraphs": [ "para_17", "para_18", "para_19" ] }, { "title": "JACKSON-AKIWUMI, Circuit Judge. Delta Airlines partnered", "paragraphs": [ "para_21" ] }, { "title": "Lands’ End, working with manufacturers and suppliers", "paragraphs": [ "para_23", "para_24", "para_25" ] }, { "title": "2 No. 23-3162", "paragraphs": [ "para_27", "para_28", "para_29" ] }, { "title": "Several hundred Delta employees sued Lands’ End. Some", "paragraphs": [ "para_31", "para_32", "para_33", "para_34", "para_35", "para_36", "para_37", "para_38", "para_39", "para_40" ] }, { "title": "I", "paragraphs": [] }, { "title": "Lands’ End partnered with fabric mills and factories over-", "paragraphs": [ "para_43", "para_44", "para_45", "para_46", "para_47", "para_48", "para_49", "para_50", "para_51", "para_52" ] }, { "title": "Two groups of Delta employees, the “Gilbert plaintiffs”", "paragraphs": [ "para_54" ] }, { "title": "End. The five Gilbert plaintiffs filed a putative class action", "paragraphs": [ "para_56" ] }, { "title": "No. 23-3162 3", "paragraphs": [ "para_58", "para_59", "para_60", "para_61", "para_62", "para_63", "para_64", "para_65", "para_66", "para_67" ] }, { "title": "Lands’ End failed to warn of the defects. Before discovery, the", "paragraphs": [ "para_69", "para_70", "para_71", "para_72" ] }, { "title": "After discovery, Lands’ End moved for summary judg-", "paragraphs": [ "para_74", "para_75", "para_76", "para_77", "para_78", "para_79" ] }, { "title": "Andrews plaintiffs’ expert opinions. Meanwhile, the Gilbert", "paragraphs": [ "para_81", "para_82", "para_83", "para_84" ] }, { "title": "Both sets of plaintiffs appealed.1 The Andrews plaintiffs", "paragraphs": [ "para_86" ] }, { "title": "1 Several of the Gilbert plaintiffs’ requests for relief are not, or are no", "paragraphs": [ "para_88" ] }, { "title": "4 No. 23-3162", "paragraphs": [] }, { "title": "Lands’ End on the personal injury claims. Relatedly, they", "paragraphs": [ "para_91", "para_92", "para_93", "para_94", "para_95" ] }, { "title": "We review grants of summary judgment de novo. Thomp-", "paragraphs": [ "para_97" ] }, { "title": "Cir. 2024). Summary judgment is appropriate where “the mo-", "paragraphs": [ "para_99", "para_100", "para_101" ] }, { "title": "We have two standards of review for questions involving", "paragraphs": [ "para_103", "para_104", "para_105", "para_106", "para_107", "para_108", "para_109" ] }, { "title": "Inc., 509 U.S. 579, 592–95 (1993). Thus, “so long as the district", "paragraphs": [ "para_111", "para_112", "para_113", "para_114", "para_115", "para_116", "para_117", "para_118", "para_119", "para_120" ] }, { "title": "No. 23-3162 5", "paragraphs": [ "para_122", "para_123" ] }, { "title": "We begin with the Andrews plaintiffs’ personal injury", "paragraphs": [ "para_125", "para_126" ] }, { "title": "A. Personal Injury Claims", "paragraphs": [] }, { "title": "The Andrews plaintiffs pursued three products liability", "paragraphs": [ "para_129", "para_130", "para_131" ] }, { "title": "We apply Wisconsin state law to these claims because it is", "paragraphs": [ "para_133", "para_134", "para_135" ] }, { "title": "Kolchinsky v. W. Dairy Transp., LLC, 949 F.3d 1010, 1013 n.2", "paragraphs": [ "para_137" ] }, { "title": "1. Proof of Defect", "paragraphs": [] }, { "title": "To make out any of their personal injury claims, the An-", "paragraphs": [ "para_140", "para_141" ] }, { "title": "Nemours & Co., 2009 WI 78, ¶ 29 (manufacturing defect claims", "paragraphs": [ "para_143", "para_144", "para_145", "para_146", "para_147", "para_148", "para_149", "para_150", "para_151" ] }, { "title": "6 No. 23-3162", "paragraphs": [ "para_153", "para_154", "para_155", "para_156" ] }, { "title": "Plaintiffs allege that the garments were defective because", "paragraphs": [ "para_158", "para_159", "para_160", "para_161", "para_162" ] }, { "title": "5) for crocking (meaning they did, in fact, crock). Yet, labora-", "paragraphs": [ "para_164", "para_165", "para_166", "para_167", "para_168", "para_169", "para_170", "para_171" ] }, { "title": "Other chemical transfer tests found that the garments", "paragraphs": [ "para_173", "para_174", "para_175", "para_176", "para_177" ] }, { "title": "Worn garments generally contained harmful substances", "paragraphs": [ "para_179", "para_180", "para_181" ] }, { "title": "No. 23-3162 7", "paragraphs": [ "para_183", "para_184", "para_185" ] }, { "title": "As the district court recognized and as the parties do not", "paragraphs": [ "para_187", "para_188", "para_189" ] }, { "title": "Light & Water Comm’n v. Allis-Chalmers Mfg. Co., 148 N.W.2d", "paragraphs": [] }, { "title": "13, 16–17 (Wis. 1967). To that end, the Andrews plaintiffs pre-", "paragraphs": [ "para_192", "para_193", "para_194", "para_195" ] }, { "title": "Dr. Hauser opined in his report that the garments were", "paragraphs": [ "para_197", "para_198", "para_199", "para_200", "para_201", "para_202", "para_203", "para_204", "para_205", "para_206", "para_207", "para_208" ] }, { "title": "But during his deposition, he was rather equivocal on the is-", "paragraphs": [ "para_210" ] }, { "title": "Hauser did not discuss whether the dye was itself harmful to", "paragraphs": [ "para_212" ] }, { "title": "8 No. 23-3162", "paragraphs": [ "para_214", "para_215", "para_216", "para_217", "para_218", "para_219", "para_220", "para_221", "para_222", "para_223", "para_224", "para_225", "para_226" ] }, { "title": "Plaintiffs’ toxicology expert, Dr. Fred Apple, reviewed the", "paragraphs": [ "para_228", "para_229", "para_230", "para_231", "para_232", "para_233", "para_234", "para_235", "para_236", "para_237", "para_238" ] }, { "title": "Plaintiffs’ medical expert Dr. Pamela Scheinman, unlike", "paragraphs": [] }, { "title": "Drs. Hauser and Apple, did not interpret any of the laboratory", "paragraphs": [ "para_241", "para_242", "para_243", "para_244" ] }, { "title": "No. 23-3162 9", "paragraphs": [ "para_246", "para_247" ] }, { "title": "From this, she concluded that the garments caused plaintiffs’", "paragraphs": [ "para_249", "para_250", "para_251" ] }, { "title": "This evidence, taken together, does not support the con-", "paragraphs": [ "para_253", "para_254", "para_255", "para_256", "para_257", "para_258", "para_259", "para_260", "para_261", "para_262", "para_263", "para_264", "para_265", "para_266" ] }, { "title": "Despite this, plaintiffs argue that Dr. Hauser’s statement", "paragraphs": [ "para_268", "para_269", "para_270", "para_271", "para_272", "para_273", "para_274" ] }, { "title": "Hauser never makes any such finding. Far short of testifying", "paragraphs": [ "para_276" ] }, { "title": "10 No. 23-3162", "paragraphs": [ "para_278", "para_279", "para_280", "para_281", "para_282", "para_283" ] }, { "title": "Dr. Apple and Scheinman’s reports and testimony are", "paragraphs": [ "para_285", "para_286", "para_287", "para_288", "para_289", "para_290", "para_291" ] }, { "title": "In sum, plaintiffs have not demonstrated a genuine factual", "paragraphs": [ "para_293", "para_294", "para_295", "para_296", "para_297", "para_298", "para_299", "para_300" ] }, { "title": "2. Proof of Causation", "paragraphs": [] }, { "title": "As we just discussed, the Andrews plaintiffs’ failure to", "paragraphs": [ "para_303", "para_304" ] }, { "title": "App. 1999) (noting that the existence of a defect is a necessary", "paragraphs": [ "para_306", "para_307" ] }, { "title": "No. 23-3162 11", "paragraphs": [ "para_309", "para_310" ] }, { "title": "To make out any of the products liability claims asserted", "paragraphs": [ "para_312", "para_313", "para_314", "para_315", "para_316", "para_317", "para_318", "para_319", "para_320", "para_321" ] }, { "title": "2 The parties misstate the standard. Wisconsin law does not require a", "paragraphs": [ "para_323", "para_324", "para_325", "para_326", "para_327", "para_328", "para_329", "para_330", "para_331", "para_332", "para_333" ] }, { "title": "We need not consider what impact, if any, this different standard may", "paragraphs": [ "para_335", "para_336", "para_337", "para_338", "para_339", "para_340" ] }, { "title": "12 No. 23-3162", "paragraphs": [] }, { "title": "Whether plaintiffs succeeded in making this showing", "paragraphs": [ "para_343" ] }, { "title": "Dr. Freeman, after reviewing questionnaire responses from", "paragraphs": [ "para_345", "para_346", "para_347", "para_348", "para_349", "para_350", "para_351", "para_352", "para_353" ] }, { "title": "Rule 702 requires parties to demonstrate that expert wit-", "paragraphs": [ "para_355", "para_356", "para_357", "para_358", "para_359", "para_360" ] }, { "title": "3 As Lands’ End points out, the December 2023 amendments to Rule", "paragraphs": [] }, { "title": "702 alter its reliability subsection to require that “the expert’s opinion re-", "paragraphs": [ "para_363", "para_364", "para_365", "para_366", "para_367", "para_368", "para_369", "para_370", "para_371" ] }, { "title": "2013). Because our conclusion is the same even under Manpower’s more", "paragraphs": [ "para_373", "para_374" ] }, { "title": "No. 23-3162 13", "paragraphs": [ "para_376", "para_377", "para_378", "para_379", "para_380" ] }, { "title": "In the next sections, we consider whether the district court", "paragraphs": [ "para_382", "para_383", "para_384", "para_385", "para_386", "para_387", "para_388", "para_389" ] }, { "title": "We begin with Dr. Freeman’s data analysis. To form his", "paragraphs": [ "para_391", "para_392", "para_393", "para_394", "para_395", "para_396", "para_397" ] }, { "title": "The district court found the questionnaire was riddled", "paragraphs": [ "para_399", "para_400", "para_401" ] }, { "title": "4 Though the district court excluded Dr. Apple and Dr. Scheinman’s", "paragraphs": [ "para_403", "para_404" ] }, { "title": "14 No. 23-3162", "paragraphs": [ "para_406", "para_407", "para_408", "para_409", "para_410" ] }, { "title": "Dr. Freeman failed to recognize, let alone control for, any", "paragraphs": [ "para_412", "para_413", "para_414", "para_415", "para_416", "para_417" ] }, { "title": "Plaintiffs argue that the district court improperly scruti-", "paragraphs": [ "para_419", "para_420", "para_421", "para_422", "para_423", "para_424", "para_425", "para_426", "para_427" ] }, { "title": "F.3d 753, 765 (7th Cir. 2013). District courts can “usurp[] the", "paragraphs": [ "para_429", "para_430", "para_431", "para_432", "para_433", "para_434", "para_435" ] }, { "title": "No. 23-3162 15", "paragraphs": [] }, { "title": "But we encounter little difficulty here concluding that the", "paragraphs": [ "para_438" ] }, { "title": "Freeman failed to employ the routine methodology of his", "paragraphs": [ "para_440" ] }, { "title": "As background, when faced with problems in their da-", "paragraphs": [ "para_442", "para_443", "para_444", "para_445", "para_446", "para_447", "para_448" ] }, { "title": "That is on full display in the Harvard Flight Attendant", "paragraphs": [ "para_450" ] }, { "title": "The study generally tracked the health outcomes of several", "paragraphs": [ "para_452", "para_453" ] }, { "title": "Alaska Airlines flight attendants who, like plaintiffs, alleged", "paragraphs": [ "para_455" ] }, { "title": "Eileen McNeely et al., Symptoms Related to New Flight At-", "paragraphs": [ "para_457", "para_458", "para_459", "para_460", "para_461", "para_462", "para_463", "para_464", "para_465" ] }, { "title": "Dr. Freeman did not attempt this minimal amount of", "paragraphs": [ "para_467" ] }, { "title": "16 No. 23-3162", "paragraphs": [ "para_469", "para_470" ] }, { "title": "Harvard study that simply acknowledging potential", "paragraphs": [ "para_472", "para_473", "para_474", "para_475", "para_476", "para_477" ] }, { "title": "Therefore, the district court did not abuse its discretion in", "paragraphs": [ "para_479", "para_480" ] }, { "title": "While we are able to affirm the district court’s decision to", "paragraphs": [ "para_482", "para_483", "para_484", "para_485", "para_486", "para_487", "para_488" ] }, { "title": "To determine whether the garments could have caused", "paragraphs": [ "para_490", "para_491" ] }, { "title": "Bradford-Hill analysis is a widely implemented nine-part ep-", "paragraphs": [ "para_493", "para_494", "para_495", "para_496" ] }, { "title": "F.3d 787, 795 (3d Cir. 2017) (finding the framework “generally", "paragraphs": [ "para_498", "para_499" ] }, { "title": "No. 23-3162 17", "paragraphs": [] }, { "title": "Before conducting a Bradford-Hill analysis, an expert", "paragraphs": [ "para_502", "para_503", "para_504" ] }, { "title": "Manual on Scientific Evidence 566. This is most often done by", "paragraphs": [ "para_506", "para_507" ] }, { "title": "Freeman never engaged in this preliminary step before con-", "paragraphs": [ "para_509", "para_510", "para_511", "para_512" ] }, { "title": "Plaintiffs ask us to overlook Dr. Freeman’s oversight on", "paragraphs": [ "para_514", "para_515", "para_516", "para_517", "para_518" ] }, { "title": "First, and most importantly, there is no evidence that", "paragraphs": [] }, { "title": "Lands’ End manufactured or worked with the same garment", "paragraphs": [ "para_521", "para_522", "para_523", "para_524", "para_525" ] }, { "title": "Second, associational values normally are expressed as", "paragraphs": [ "para_527", "para_528", "para_529" ] }, { "title": "Harvard study. That study determined from Alaska Airlines", "paragraphs": [ "para_531" ] }, { "title": "18 No. 23-3162", "paragraphs": [ "para_533", "para_534", "para_535", "para_536", "para_537", "para_538", "para_539" ] }, { "title": "Beyond this preliminary step, Dr. Freeman’s report also", "paragraphs": [ "para_541" ] }, { "title": "Bradford-Hill variables are: (1) plausibility; (2) strength of", "paragraphs": [ "para_543", "para_544", "para_545", "para_546", "para_547" ] }, { "title": "ROYAL SOC’Y MED. 295, 295–99 (1965). Instead of considering", "paragraphs": [ "para_549", "para_550" ] }, { "title": "Hill analysis. This tripartite analysis considered: “1) the", "paragraphs": [ "para_552", "para_553", "para_554", "para_555" ] }, { "title": "The district court did not disqualify Dr. Freeman’s", "paragraphs": [ "para_557", "para_558", "para_559" ] }, { "title": "See Etherton v. Owners Ins. Co., 829 F.3d 1209, 1218–23 (10th", "paragraphs": [] }, { "title": "Cir. 2016) (considering reliability of expert’s distilled", "paragraphs": [ "para_562", "para_563" ] }, { "title": "No. 23-3162 19", "paragraphs": [ "para_565", "para_566" ] }, { "title": "First, Dr. Freeman’s report does not discuss how the three", "paragraphs": [ "para_568", "para_569", "para_570", "para_571" ] }, { "title": "Dr. Freeman relies on similarly fail to connect the dots be-", "paragraphs": [ "para_573" ] }, { "title": "Second, the articles Dr. Freeman cites apply distilled", "paragraphs": [] }, { "title": "Bradford-Hill analyses in epidemiological contexts rather", "paragraphs": [ "para_576", "para_577", "para_578", "para_579", "para_580", "para_581" ] }, { "title": "Even still, plaintiffs argue that Dr. Freeman was not obli-", "paragraphs": [ "para_583", "para_584", "para_585", "para_586", "para_587", "para_588", "para_589", "para_590", "para_591", "para_592" ] }, { "title": "Therefore, we cannot say that the district court abused its dis-", "paragraphs": [ "para_594" ] }, { "title": "20 No. 23-3162", "paragraphs": [ "para_596", "para_597", "para_598" ] }, { "title": "Dr. Freeman also used another framework—the Naranjo", "paragraphs": [ "para_600", "para_601", "para_602", "para_603", "para_604", "para_605", "para_606", "para_607", "para_608", "para_609", "para_610", "para_611", "para_612", "para_613", "para_614" ] }, { "title": "Lands’ End argued before the district court that the scien-", "paragraphs": [ "para_616", "para_617" ] }, { "title": "Freeman inappropriately altered the analysis to favor plain-", "paragraphs": [ "para_619" ] }, { "title": "Naranjo algorithm is widely used, and that Dr. Freeman em-", "paragraphs": [ "para_621", "para_622" ] }, { "title": "17–18 (1st Cir. 2011). The district court did not acknowledge", "paragraphs": [ "para_624", "para_625", "para_626" ] }, { "title": "No. 23-3162 21", "paragraphs": [ "para_628", "para_629", "para_630", "para_631" ] }, { "title": "Plaintiffs ask us to remand this case for the district court", "paragraphs": [ "para_633", "para_634", "para_635", "para_636", "para_637", "para_638", "para_639" ] }, { "title": "O'Brien v. Caterpillar Inc., 900 F.3d 923, 928 (7th Cir. 2018) (we", "paragraphs": [ "para_641", "para_642" ] }, { "title": "For these reasons, we affirm the district court’s exclusion", "paragraphs": [ "para_644", "para_645" ] }, { "title": "End’s favor. That brings us to the Gilbert plaintiffs’ breach of", "paragraphs": [ "para_647" ] }, { "title": "B. Breach of Warranty", "paragraphs": [] }, { "title": "The Gilbert plaintiffs brought a breach of express war-", "paragraphs": [ "para_650", "para_651", "para_652", "para_653" ] }, { "title": "End breached a provision of the UAA guaranteeing that “if at", "paragraphs": [ "para_655", "para_656", "para_657" ] }, { "title": "22 No. 23-3162", "paragraphs": [ "para_659", "para_660", "para_661", "para_662", "para_663", "para_664" ] }, { "title": "Lands’ End cross-moved for summary judgment on this", "paragraphs": [ "para_666", "para_667", "para_668", "para_669", "para_670", "para_671", "para_672", "para_673", "para_674" ] }, { "title": "On appeal, plaintiffs argue that the district court erred by", "paragraphs": [ "para_676", "para_677", "para_678", "para_679", "para_680", "para_681", "para_682" ] }, { "title": "Before addressing the merits, we must determine which", "paragraphs": [ "para_684", "para_685", "para_686", "para_687", "para_688" ] }, { "title": "433 F.3d 913, 915 (7th Cir. 2006). Wisconsin law honors choice", "paragraphs": [] }, { "title": "No. 23-3162 23", "paragraphs": [ "para_691", "para_692", "para_693", "para_694", "para_695", "para_696" ] }, { "title": "Under Delaware law, a beneficiary’s rights can be “ex-", "paragraphs": [ "para_698" ] }, { "title": "Crispo v. Musk, 304 A.3d 567, 573 (Del. Ch. 2023). The same is", "paragraphs": [ "para_700", "para_701", "para_702", "para_703", "para_704", "para_705", "para_706", "para_707", "para_708", "para_709", "para_710", "para_711" ] }, { "title": "The UAA’s language easily passes muster under these", "paragraphs": [ "para_713", "para_714", "para_715", "para_716", "para_717" ] }, { "title": "Plaintiffs make much of the fact that they were not shown", "paragraphs": [ "para_719", "para_720", "para_721" ] }, { "title": "24 No. 23-3162", "paragraphs": [ "para_723", "para_724", "para_725", "para_726", "para_727", "para_728", "para_729", "para_730", "para_731" ] }, { "title": "For these reasons, summary judgment on this claim was", "paragraphs": [ "para_733" ] }, { "title": "III", "paragraphs": [] }, { "title": "In sum, we affirm the grant of summary judgment to", "paragraphs": [ "para_736" ] }, { "title": "None of plaintiffs’ experts offered testimony establishing that", "paragraphs": [ "para_738", "para_739", "para_740", "para_741" ] }, { "title": "Summary judgment in Lands’ Ends favor on the Gilbert", "paragraphs": [ "para_743", "para_744", "para_745" ] } ], "paragraphs": [ { "text": "In the", "paragraph_id": "para_1" }, { "text": "United States Court of Appeals", "paragraph_id": "para_2" }, { "text": "For the Seventh Circuit", "paragraph_id": "para_3" }, { "text": "____________________", "paragraph_id": "para_4" }, { "text": "No. 23-3162", "paragraph_id": "para_5" }, { "text": "GWYNETH GILBERT, et al.,", "paragraph_id": "para_6" }, { "text": "Plaintiffs-Appellants,", "paragraph_id": "para_7" }, { "text": "v.", "paragraph_id": "para_8" }, { "text": "LANDS’ END, INC., et al.,", "paragraph_id": "para_9" }, { "text": "Defendants-Appellees.", "paragraph_id": "para_10" }, { "text": "____________________", "paragraph_id": "para_11" }, { "text": "Appeal from the United States District Court for the", "paragraph_id": "para_12" }, { "text": "Western District of Wisconsin.", "paragraph_id": "para_13" }, { "text": "Nos. 3:19-cv-00823 & 3:19-cv-01066 — James D. Peterson, Chief Judge.", "paragraph_id": "para_14" }, { "text": "____________________", "paragraph_id": "para_15" }, { "text": "ARGUED NOVEMBER 14, 2024 — DECIDED OCTOBER 23, 2025", "paragraph_id": "para_16" }, { "text": "____________________", "paragraph_id": "para_17" }, { "text": "Before JACKSON-AKIWUMI, PRYOR, and MALDONADO,", "paragraph_id": "para_18" }, { "text": "Circuit Judges.", "paragraph_id": "para_19" }, { "text": "JACKSON-AKIWUMI, Circuit Judge. Delta Airlines partnered", "paragraph_id": "para_20" }, { "text": "with outfitter Lands’ End to update Delta employee uniforms.", "paragraph_id": "para_21" }, { "text": "Lands’ End, working with manufacturers and suppliers", "paragraph_id": "para_22" }, { "text": "across the world, delivered nearly one hundred different", "paragraph_id": "para_23" }, { "text": "types of garments to the airline. After donning the new uni-", "paragraph_id": "para_24" }, { "text": "forms, hundreds of Delta employees complained about", "paragraph_id": "para_25" }, { "text": "2 No. 23-3162", "paragraph_id": "para_26" }, { "text": "garment dye leaching onto their property. Many also com-", "paragraph_id": "para_27" }, { "text": "plained that they experienced a wide array of medical symp-", "paragraph_id": "para_28" }, { "text": "toms.", "paragraph_id": "para_29" }, { "text": "Several hundred Delta employees sued Lands’ End. Some", "paragraph_id": "para_30" }, { "text": "brought breach of warranty claims against the outfitter as in-", "paragraph_id": "para_31" }, { "text": "tended beneficiaries of the apparel contract Lands’ End had", "paragraph_id": "para_32" }, { "text": "with Delta. Others brought personal injury claims for the", "paragraph_id": "para_33" }, { "text": "medical symptoms caused by dye transfer. Discovery en-", "paragraph_id": "para_34" }, { "text": "sued—the record contained laboratory test results and re-", "paragraph_id": "para_35" }, { "text": "ports by experts in textile chemistry, epidemiology, toxicol-", "paragraph_id": "para_36" }, { "text": "ogy, and dermatology. After discovery, the district court", "paragraph_id": "para_37" }, { "text": "granted Lands’ End summary judgment on the breach of war-", "paragraph_id": "para_38" }, { "text": "ranty and personal injury claims. Plaintiffs ask this court to", "paragraph_id": "para_39" }, { "text": "reverse both decisions, but we affirm.", "paragraph_id": "para_40" }, { "text": "I", "paragraph_id": "para_41" }, { "text": "Lands’ End partnered with fabric mills and factories over-", "paragraph_id": "para_42" }, { "text": "seas, including in China, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam, to produce", "paragraph_id": "para_43" }, { "text": "uniforms for Delta Airlines. The new uniforms were then dis-", "paragraph_id": "para_44" }, { "text": "tributed to 64,000 Delta employees. Not long after the gar-", "paragraph_id": "para_45" }, { "text": "ments arrived, complaints started streaming in. Employees", "paragraph_id": "para_46" }, { "text": "informed Lands’ End that the uniforms transferred dye (or", "paragraph_id": "para_47" }, { "text": "crocked, as commonly referred to in the textile industry) onto", "paragraph_id": "para_48" }, { "text": "other surfaces and made them sick. Employees complained of", "paragraph_id": "para_49" }, { "text": "rashes, itchiness, fatigue, headaches, anxiety, memory issues,", "paragraph_id": "para_50" }, { "text": "coughing, breathing difficulties, and vocal cord issues soon", "paragraph_id": "para_51" }, { "text": "after they started wearing the uniforms.", "paragraph_id": "para_52" }, { "text": "Two groups of Delta employees, the “Gilbert plaintiffs”", "paragraph_id": "para_53" }, { "text": "and “Andrews plaintiffs,” brought lawsuits against Lands’", "paragraph_id": "para_54" }, { "text": "End. The five Gilbert plaintiffs filed a putative class action", "paragraph_id": "para_55" }, { "text": "seeking to recover for the damage the leaching dye caused to", "paragraph_id": "para_56" }, { "text": "No. 23-3162 3", "paragraph_id": "para_57" }, { "text": "their property—clothes, accessories, sheets, towels, furnish-", "paragraph_id": "para_58" }, { "text": "ings, and other items. The Gilbert plaintiffs also sought recov-", "paragraph_id": "para_59" }, { "text": "ery for breach of express warranties under Delta’s contract", "paragraph_id": "para_60" }, { "text": "with Lands’ End which stated that the uniforms would be free", "paragraph_id": "para_61" }, { "text": "of defects in material and workmanship, and that plaintiffs", "paragraph_id": "para_62" }, { "text": "would be 100% satisfied with them. The Andrews plaintiffs,", "paragraph_id": "para_63" }, { "text": "comprised of 605 individually named Delta employees,", "paragraph_id": "para_64" }, { "text": "brought products liability claims against Lands’ End for their", "paragraph_id": "para_65" }, { "text": "personal injuries. They alleged that the uniforms were defec-", "paragraph_id": "para_66" }, { "text": "tively manufactured and defectively designed, and that", "paragraph_id": "para_67" }, { "text": "Lands’ End failed to warn of the defects. Before discovery, the", "paragraph_id": "para_68" }, { "text": "district court consolidated the two actions into a single case", "paragraph_id": "para_69" }, { "text": "and set different briefing schedules depending on whether an", "paragraph_id": "para_70" }, { "text": "issue affected large groups of plaintiffs or individual plain-", "paragraph_id": "para_71" }, { "text": "tiffs.", "paragraph_id": "para_72" }, { "text": "After discovery, Lands’ End moved for summary judg-", "paragraph_id": "para_73" }, { "text": "ment and prevailed across the board. In the outfitters’ motion", "paragraph_id": "para_74" }, { "text": "for summary judgment on the Andrews plaintiffs’ personal", "paragraph_id": "para_75" }, { "text": "injury claims, the company argued that plaintiffs presented", "paragraph_id": "para_76" }, { "text": "no credible expert testimony in support of their contention", "paragraph_id": "para_77" }, { "text": "that the uniforms were defective or caused their injuries. The", "paragraph_id": "para_78" }, { "text": "district court granted that motion after excluding three of the", "paragraph_id": "para_79" }, { "text": "Andrews plaintiffs’ expert opinions. Meanwhile, the Gilbert", "paragraph_id": "para_80" }, { "text": "plaintiffs and Lands’ End cross-moved for partial summary", "paragraph_id": "para_81" }, { "text": "judgment on plaintiffs’ claim that the 100% satisfaction guar-", "paragraph_id": "para_82" }, { "text": "anteed warranty had been breached. The district court again", "paragraph_id": "para_83" }, { "text": "ruled in favor of Lands’ End.", "paragraph_id": "para_84" }, { "text": "Both sets of plaintiffs appealed.1 The Andrews plaintiffs", "paragraph_id": "para_85" }, { "text": "challenge the district court’s grant of summary judgment to", "paragraph_id": "para_86" }, { "text": "1 Several of the Gilbert plaintiffs’ requests for relief are not, or are no", "paragraph_id": "para_87" }, { "text": "longer, on appeal. First, the Gilbert plaintiffs moved for partial summary", "paragraph_id": "para_88" }, { "text": "4 No. 23-3162", "paragraph_id": "para_89" }, { "text": "Lands’ End on the personal injury claims. Relatedly, they", "paragraph_id": "para_90" }, { "text": "challenge the district court’s exclusion of their expert wit-", "paragraph_id": "para_91" }, { "text": "nesses. The Gilbert plaintiffs challenge the district court’s", "paragraph_id": "para_92" }, { "text": "grant of summary judgment to Lands’ End on the breach of", "paragraph_id": "para_93" }, { "text": "warranty claims.", "paragraph_id": "para_94" }, { "text": "II.", "paragraph_id": "para_95" }, { "text": "We review grants of summary judgment de novo. Thomp-", "paragraph_id": "para_96" }, { "text": "son Corrugated Sys., Inc. v. Engico, S.R.L., 111 F.4th 747, 751 (7th", "paragraph_id": "para_97" }, { "text": "Cir. 2024). Summary judgment is appropriate where “the mo-", "paragraph_id": "para_98" }, { "text": "vant shows that there is no genuine dispute as to any material", "paragraph_id": "para_99" }, { "text": "fact and that the movant is entitled to judgment as a matter of", "paragraph_id": "para_100" }, { "text": "law.” Fed. R. Civ. P. 56(a).", "paragraph_id": "para_101" }, { "text": "We have two standards of review for questions involving", "paragraph_id": "para_102" }, { "text": "expert witness testimony. We review the application of Fed-", "paragraph_id": "para_103" }, { "text": "eral Rule of Evidence 702, which governs the district court in", "paragraph_id": "para_104" }, { "text": "qualifying expert witnesses, de novo. Chi. Joe’s Tea Room, LLC", "paragraph_id": "para_105" }, { "text": "v. Vill. of Broadview, 94 F.4th 588, 596 (7th Cir. 2024). But we", "paragraph_id": "para_106" }, { "text": "review “more specific decisions to admit or exclude expert", "paragraph_id": "para_107" }, { "text": "testimony—once properly classified as such—for an abuse of", "paragraph_id": "para_108" }, { "text": "discretion.” Id.; see also Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals,", "paragraph_id": "para_109" }, { "text": "Inc., 509 U.S. 579, 592–95 (1993). Thus, “so long as the district", "paragraph_id": "para_110" }, { "text": "court adhered to Daubert’s requirements, we shall not disturb", "paragraph_id": "para_111" }, { "text": "the district court’s findings unless they are manifestly", "paragraph_id": "para_112" }, { "text": "judgment on their claim for breach of the warranty guaranteeing defect-", "paragraph_id": "para_113" }, { "text": "free uniforms. The district court denied the motion, and the Gilbert plain-", "paragraph_id": "para_114" }, { "text": "tiffs do not appeal that denial. Second and third, the Gilbert plaintiffs", "paragraph_id": "para_115" }, { "text": "moved for class certification and summary judgment on their property", "paragraph_id": "para_116" }, { "text": "damage claims. The district court denied the motions for class certification", "paragraph_id": "para_117" }, { "text": "and summary judgment. The Gilbert plaintiffs initially appealed the de-", "paragraph_id": "para_118" }, { "text": "nial of these two motions but announced in their reply brief that they were", "paragraph_id": "para_119" }, { "text": "withdrawing the appeals. Therefore, we discuss these subjects no further.", "paragraph_id": "para_120" }, { "text": "No. 23-3162 5", "paragraph_id": "para_121" }, { "text": "erroneous.” Naeem v. McKesson Drug Co., 444 F.3d 593, 607–08", "paragraph_id": "para_122" }, { "text": "(7th Cir. 2006) (citation modified).", "paragraph_id": "para_123" }, { "text": "We begin with the Andrews plaintiffs’ personal injury", "paragraph_id": "para_124" }, { "text": "claims and end with the Gilbert plaintiffs’ breach of warranty", "paragraph_id": "para_125" }, { "text": "claims.", "paragraph_id": "para_126" }, { "text": "A. Personal Injury Claims", "paragraph_id": "para_127" }, { "text": "The Andrews plaintiffs pursued three products liability", "paragraph_id": "para_128" }, { "text": "claims in their effort to recover from Lands’ End for their per-", "paragraph_id": "para_129" }, { "text": "sonal injuries. These three claims were for manufacturing de-", "paragraph_id": "para_130" }, { "text": "fect, design defect, and failure to warn.", "paragraph_id": "para_131" }, { "text": "We apply Wisconsin state law to these claims because it is", "paragraph_id": "para_132" }, { "text": "“the substantive law of the state in which the federal court", "paragraph_id": "para_133" }, { "text": "sits” in this action based on diversity jurisdiction and because", "paragraph_id": "para_134" }, { "text": "“there is no dispute over which state’s law applies.”", "paragraph_id": "para_135" }, { "text": "Kolchinsky v. W. Dairy Transp., LLC, 949 F.3d 1010, 1013 n.2", "paragraph_id": "para_136" }, { "text": "(7th Cir. 2020) (per curiam).", "paragraph_id": "para_137" }, { "text": "1. Proof of Defect", "paragraph_id": "para_138" }, { "text": "To make out any of their personal injury claims, the An-", "paragraph_id": "para_139" }, { "text": "drews plaintiffs needed to present evidence that the garments", "paragraph_id": "para_140" }, { "text": "were defective. See Godoy ex rel. Gramling v. E.I. du Pont de", "paragraph_id": "para_141" }, { "text": "Nemours & Co., 2009 WI 78, ¶ 29 (manufacturing defect claims", "paragraph_id": "para_142" }, { "text": "require evidence that the offending product “deviate[d] from", "paragraph_id": "para_143" }, { "text": "the manufacturer’s specifications, and that deviation cause[d]", "paragraph_id": "para_144" }, { "text": "it to be unreasonably dangerous.”); id. (design defect claims", "paragraph_id": "para_145" }, { "text": "require evidence that “the design itself is the cause of the un-", "paragraph_id": "para_146" }, { "text": "reasonable danger”); id. (failure to warn claims require evi-", "paragraph_id": "para_147" }, { "text": "dence that “an intended use of the product is dangerous, but", "paragraph_id": "para_148" }, { "text": "the manufacturer did not provide sufficient warning or in-", "paragraph_id": "para_149" }, { "text": "struction”). Plaintiffs relied on laboratory tests to determine", "paragraph_id": "para_150" }, { "text": "what, if any, harmful substances the garments contained and", "paragraph_id": "para_151" }, { "text": "6 No. 23-3162", "paragraph_id": "para_152" }, { "text": "expert witness testimony to prove defect. We first describe the", "paragraph_id": "para_153" }, { "text": "results of those tests and then the reliability of the expert wit-", "paragraph_id": "para_154" }, { "text": "ness testimony interpreting those results.", "paragraph_id": "para_155" }, { "text": "a. Test Results", "paragraph_id": "para_156" }, { "text": "Plaintiffs allege that the garments were defective because", "paragraph_id": "para_157" }, { "text": "they leached harmful chemicals and heavy metals alongside", "paragraph_id": "para_158" }, { "text": "the dye that crocked onto wearers. Plaintiffs subjected many", "paragraph_id": "para_159" }, { "text": "of the garments to tests designed to detect dye and chemical", "paragraph_id": "para_160" }, { "text": "transfer in hopes of proving a defect. These tests had mixed", "paragraph_id": "para_161" }, { "text": "results. The tested garments scored between 3.5 and 5 (out of", "paragraph_id": "para_162" }, { "text": "5) for crocking (meaning they did, in fact, crock). Yet, labora-", "paragraph_id": "para_163" }, { "text": "tory technicians who conducted the crocking tests noted that", "paragraph_id": "para_164" }, { "text": "all the tested garments “met general industry standards … for", "paragraph_id": "para_165" }, { "text": "crockfastness.” X-Ray tests measuring chemical transfer es-", "paragraph_id": "para_166" }, { "text": "tablished that some of the garments transferred fluorine, so-", "paragraph_id": "para_167" }, { "text": "dium, magnesium, and silicon. The technicians who con-", "paragraph_id": "para_168" }, { "text": "ducted those tests did not note on the reports whether the", "paragraph_id": "para_169" }, { "text": "transfer of these chemicals was harmful or common in the in-", "paragraph_id": "para_170" }, { "text": "dustry.", "paragraph_id": "para_171" }, { "text": "Other chemical transfer tests found that the garments", "paragraph_id": "para_172" }, { "text": "“contain[ed] several chemicals that are known to be irritating", "paragraph_id": "para_173" }, { "text": "and potentially toxic.” One such test found that several gar-", "paragraph_id": "para_174" }, { "text": "ments contained potentially harmful substances like perfluo-", "paragraph_id": "para_175" }, { "text": "rooctanoic acid, heavy metals (e.g. antimony, chromium, mer-", "paragraph_id": "para_176" }, { "text": "cury, etc.), formaldehyde, and bromine.", "paragraph_id": "para_177" }, { "text": "Worn garments generally contained harmful substances", "paragraph_id": "para_178" }, { "text": "in higher concentrations than unworn garments. Some data", "paragraph_id": "para_179" }, { "text": "collection technicians speculated that worn garments had", "paragraph_id": "para_180" }, { "text": "higher concentrations of these substances because of chemical", "paragraph_id": "para_181" }, { "text": "No. 23-3162 7", "paragraph_id": "para_182" }, { "text": "reactions between the garments and deodorants, lotions, per-", "paragraph_id": "para_183" }, { "text": "fumes, and laundry detergents used by the wearer.", "paragraph_id": "para_184" }, { "text": "b. Expert Witnesses", "paragraph_id": "para_185" }, { "text": "As the district court recognized and as the parties do not", "paragraph_id": "para_186" }, { "text": "dispute, a jury would not be able to determine the existence", "paragraph_id": "para_187" }, { "text": "of a defect by independently reviewing the test results; expert", "paragraph_id": "para_188" }, { "text": "witness testimony is necessary to assist. See City of Cedarburg", "paragraph_id": "para_189" }, { "text": "Light & Water Comm’n v. Allis-Chalmers Mfg. Co., 148 N.W.2d", "paragraph_id": "para_190" }, { "text": "13, 16–17 (Wis. 1967). To that end, the Andrews plaintiffs pre-", "paragraph_id": "para_191" }, { "text": "sented three expert witnesses in support of their defect argu-", "paragraph_id": "para_192" }, { "text": "ment: Dr. Peter J. Hauser (a textile expert), Dr. Fred Apple (a", "paragraph_id": "para_193" }, { "text": "toxicologist), and Dr. Pamela Scheinman (a dermatologist and", "paragraph_id": "para_194" }, { "text": "medical expert).", "paragraph_id": "para_195" }, { "text": "Dr. Hauser opined in his report that the garments were", "paragraph_id": "para_196" }, { "text": "defective because they “transfer[red] … colorant from the sur-", "paragraph_id": "para_197" }, { "text": "face of the fabric” to other surfaces like the wearers’ skin and", "paragraph_id": "para_198" }, { "text": "property. He stated that the garments crocked because Lands’", "paragraph_id": "para_199" }, { "text": "End employed a dye process that “was improper, inadequate,", "paragraph_id": "para_200" }, { "text": "defective, and not in compliance with industry standards”", "paragraph_id": "para_201" }, { "text": "and did not “properly afterwash[] or otherwise scour[]” the", "paragraph_id": "para_202" }, { "text": "uniforms. Dr. Hauser also confirmed that the garments trans-", "paragraph_id": "para_203" }, { "text": "ferred fluorine, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, and silicon", "paragraph_id": "para_204" }, { "text": "when crocking, as the tests showed. Importantly, Dr. Hauser", "paragraph_id": "para_205" }, { "text": "did not opine on whether, how, or at what concentrations", "paragraph_id": "para_206" }, { "text": "such chemical transfer would qualify as a defect.", "paragraph_id": "para_207" }, { "text": "Dr. Hauser’s report was straightforward and definitive.", "paragraph_id": "para_208" }, { "text": "But during his deposition, he was rather equivocal on the is-", "paragraph_id": "para_209" }, { "text": "sue of defect when it came to the personal injury claims. Dr.", "paragraph_id": "para_210" }, { "text": "Hauser did not discuss whether the dye was itself harmful to", "paragraph_id": "para_211" }, { "text": "human health. He also did not testify whether it was the dye", "paragraph_id": "para_212" }, { "text": "8 No. 23-3162", "paragraph_id": "para_213" }, { "text": "as opposed to something else that transferred any of the other", "paragraph_id": "para_214" }, { "text": "chemicals or heavy metals found in the garments. Rather, Dr.", "paragraph_id": "para_215" }, { "text": "Hauser stated that the five chemicals listed above (fluorine,", "paragraph_id": "para_216" }, { "text": "sodium, magnesium, aluminum, and silicon) were routinely", "paragraph_id": "para_217" }, { "text": "found in garments and were not present at concerning levels", "paragraph_id": "para_218" }, { "text": "in the tested uniforms. Strikingly, when asked to describe in-", "paragraph_id": "para_219" }, { "text": "dustry standards for colorfastness, Dr. Hauser seemed to un-", "paragraph_id": "para_220" }, { "text": "dermine his report’s findings on the inadequacy of the dye", "paragraph_id": "para_221" }, { "text": "process. Whereas his report stated in absolute terms that the", "paragraph_id": "para_222" }, { "text": "garments were defective, his testimony was that no broad in-", "paragraph_id": "para_223" }, { "text": "dustry standards for colorfastness exist. Instead, Dr. Hauser", "paragraph_id": "para_224" }, { "text": "explained, retailers and consumers together set acceptable", "paragraph_id": "para_225" }, { "text": "limits during contract negotiations.", "paragraph_id": "para_226" }, { "text": "Plaintiffs’ toxicology expert, Dr. Fred Apple, reviewed the", "paragraph_id": "para_227" }, { "text": "lab tests and opined in his report that the garments contained", "paragraph_id": "para_228" }, { "text": "“elevated and sometimes dangerous levels of” chemicals and", "paragraph_id": "para_229" }, { "text": "heavy metals. Although Dr. Apple also opined that wearers", "paragraph_id": "para_230" }, { "text": "were exposed to these substances through transferred dye as", "paragraph_id": "para_231" }, { "text": "the uniforms crocked, he did not state whether the garments", "paragraph_id": "para_232" }, { "text": "were defective. Like Dr. Hauser, Dr. Apple’s deposition testi-", "paragraph_id": "para_233" }, { "text": "mony was more equivocal. When deposed, Dr. Apple testi-", "paragraph_id": "para_234" }, { "text": "fied that he was not knowledgeable about the permissible lim-", "paragraph_id": "para_235" }, { "text": "its of any of the substances found in the garments or the path-", "paragraph_id": "para_236" }, { "text": "ways by which such substances might be transferred from", "paragraph_id": "para_237" }, { "text": "garment to wearer.", "paragraph_id": "para_238" }, { "text": "Plaintiffs’ medical expert Dr. Pamela Scheinman, unlike", "paragraph_id": "para_239" }, { "text": "Drs. Hauser and Apple, did not interpret any of the laboratory", "paragraph_id": "para_240" }, { "text": "test results. Instead, Dr. Scheinman’s report assumed that", "paragraph_id": "para_241" }, { "text": "plaintiffs were exposed to harmful chemicals and metals by", "paragraph_id": "para_242" }, { "text": "wearing the garments and exclusively considered whether", "paragraph_id": "para_243" }, { "text": "such exposure could cause their personal injuries. In forming", "paragraph_id": "para_244" }, { "text": "No. 23-3162 9", "paragraph_id": "para_245" }, { "text": "her opinion, Dr. Scheinman reviewed some plaintiffs’ medical", "paragraph_id": "para_246" }, { "text": "records, but did not independently examine any plaintiffs.", "paragraph_id": "para_247" }, { "text": "From this, she concluded that the garments caused plaintiffs’", "paragraph_id": "para_248" }, { "text": "symptoms. Like the other experts, Dr. Scheinman did not", "paragraph_id": "para_249" }, { "text": "reach any conclusions about whether the garments were de-", "paragraph_id": "para_250" }, { "text": "fective.", "paragraph_id": "para_251" }, { "text": "This evidence, taken together, does not support the con-", "paragraph_id": "para_252" }, { "text": "clusion that the uniforms were defective. Dr. Hauser’s expert", "paragraph_id": "para_253" }, { "text": "report comes closest when stating that Lands’ End employed", "paragraph_id": "para_254" }, { "text": "a defective dye process that caused dye to crock onto wearers’", "paragraph_id": "para_255" }, { "text": "skin and property. Standing alone, this might have qualified", "paragraph_id": "para_256" }, { "text": "as admissible expert defect testimony for plaintiff’s property", "paragraph_id": "para_257" }, { "text": "damage claims. Yet, the report and testimony were not suffi-", "paragraph_id": "para_258" }, { "text": "cient for the personal injury claims. Dr. Hauser expressly dis-", "paragraph_id": "para_259" }, { "text": "claimed the opinion that crocking routinely results in the", "paragraph_id": "para_260" }, { "text": "transfer of fluorine, sodium, magnesium, aluminum and sili-", "paragraph_id": "para_261" }, { "text": "con. Going even further, he declined to opine on whether", "paragraph_id": "para_262" }, { "text": "these chemicals were transferred to wearers at concentrations", "paragraph_id": "para_263" }, { "text": "that could cause injury. In retrospect, this is unsurprising be-", "paragraph_id": "para_264" }, { "text": "cause Dr. Hauser’s report focused only on the questions", "paragraph_id": "para_265" }, { "text": "raised by plaintiffs’ property damage claims.", "paragraph_id": "para_266" }, { "text": "Despite this, plaintiffs argue that Dr. Hauser’s statement", "paragraph_id": "para_267" }, { "text": "that some garments transferred the five chemicals when", "paragraph_id": "para_268" }, { "text": "crocking is sufficient to establish defect because the statement", "paragraph_id": "para_269" }, { "text": "proves the garments were “dangerous to an extent beyond", "paragraph_id": "para_270" }, { "text": "that which would be contemplated by the ordinary consumer", "paragraph_id": "para_271" }, { "text": "… with the ordinary knowledge common to the community", "paragraph_id": "para_272" }, { "text": "as to its characteristics.” Murphy v. Columbus McKinnon Corp.,", "paragraph_id": "para_273" }, { "text": "2022 WI 109, ¶ 21. This argument is unconvincing because Dr.", "paragraph_id": "para_274" }, { "text": "Hauser never makes any such finding. Far short of testifying", "paragraph_id": "para_275" }, { "text": "that the transferred chemicals were dangerous, he testified", "paragraph_id": "para_276" }, { "text": "10 No. 23-3162", "paragraph_id": "para_277" }, { "text": "that the five chemicals at issue were commonly found in tex-", "paragraph_id": "para_278" }, { "text": "tiles and were present at routine concentrations in the gar-", "paragraph_id": "para_279" }, { "text": "ments. And his report and testimony are entirely silent on the", "paragraph_id": "para_280" }, { "text": "other chemicals and heavy metals (i.e. perfluorooctanoic acid,", "paragraph_id": "para_281" }, { "text": "antimony, chromium, mercury, formaldehyde, and bromine)", "paragraph_id": "para_282" }, { "text": "found in the garments.", "paragraph_id": "para_283" }, { "text": "Dr. Apple and Scheinman’s reports and testimony are", "paragraph_id": "para_284" }, { "text": "similarly insufficient to prove defect. Plaintiffs are correct that", "paragraph_id": "para_285" }, { "text": "these two experts testified that the laboratory tests showed", "paragraph_id": "para_286" }, { "text": "the garments contained several metals and chemicals. But nei-", "paragraph_id": "para_287" }, { "text": "ther expert tied the presence of these substances to a defect in", "paragraph_id": "para_288" }, { "text": "the uniforms. This too is understandable because, as toxicol-", "paragraph_id": "para_289" }, { "text": "ogy and medical experts, they would not be qualified to opine", "paragraph_id": "para_290" }, { "text": "on the garment manufacturing process.", "paragraph_id": "para_291" }, { "text": "In sum, plaintiffs have not demonstrated a genuine factual", "paragraph_id": "para_292" }, { "text": "dispute as to the existence of a defect. At best, the laboratory", "paragraph_id": "para_293" }, { "text": "results and expert opinions show that some garments leached", "paragraph_id": "para_294" }, { "text": "dye, that some garments contained chemicals and heavy met-", "paragraph_id": "para_295" }, { "text": "als at varying levels, and that some crocking resulted in non-", "paragraph_id": "para_296" }, { "text": "threatening chemical transfer. None of the experts’ findings", "paragraph_id": "para_297" }, { "text": "permit a jury to conclude that the hundreds of garments", "paragraph_id": "para_298" }, { "text": "plaintiffs wore were defective in a manner resulting in the", "paragraph_id": "para_299" }, { "text": "transfer of toxins.", "paragraph_id": "para_300" }, { "text": "2. Proof of Causation", "paragraph_id": "para_301" }, { "text": "As we just discussed, the Andrews plaintiffs’ failure to", "paragraph_id": "para_302" }, { "text": "present sufficient evidence as to the existence of a defect de-", "paragraph_id": "para_303" }, { "text": "feats their suit. Tanner v. Shoupe, 596 N.W.2d 805, 811 (Wis. Ct.", "paragraph_id": "para_304" }, { "text": "App. 1999) (noting that the existence of a defect is a necessary", "paragraph_id": "para_305" }, { "text": "element of a products liability claim). But their suit encoun-", "paragraph_id": "para_306" }, { "text": "ters a second obstacle. The record lacks sufficient evidence for", "paragraph_id": "para_307" }, { "text": "No. 23-3162 11", "paragraph_id": "para_308" }, { "text": "a jury to find that Lands’ End caused plaintiffs’ personal inju-", "paragraph_id": "para_309" }, { "text": "ries.", "paragraph_id": "para_310" }, { "text": "To make out any of the products liability claims asserted", "paragraph_id": "para_311" }, { "text": "in this case (manufacturing defect, design defect, and failure", "paragraph_id": "para_312" }, { "text": "to warn), plaintiffs must establish that “the defect was a cause", "paragraph_id": "para_313" }, { "text": "of the plaintiff’s injuries or damages.” Godoy, 2009 WI 78, ¶ 16", "paragraph_id": "para_314" }, { "text": "n.7. According to the parties, plaintiffs must prove both gen-", "paragraph_id": "para_315" }, { "text": "eral and specific causation.2 General causation asks whether", "paragraph_id": "para_316" }, { "text": "the toxic substance “had the capacity to cause the harm al-", "paragraph_id": "para_317" }, { "text": "leged.” C.W. ex rel. Wood v. Textron, Inc., 807 F.3d 827, 831 (7th", "paragraph_id": "para_318" }, { "text": "Cir. 2015) (citation modified). “Specific causation, by contrast,", "paragraph_id": "para_319" }, { "text": "examines whether the substance did, in fact, cause the harm", "paragraph_id": "para_320" }, { "text": "alleged.” Id.", "paragraph_id": "para_321" }, { "text": "2 The parties misstate the standard. Wisconsin law does not require a", "paragraph_id": "para_322" }, { "text": "showing of general and specific causation as routinely stated in the com-", "paragraph_id": "para_323" }, { "text": "mon law. Rather, assuming arguendo that the dye transfer is a valid defect,", "paragraph_id": "para_324" }, { "text": "plaintiffs were required to present evidence that this defect “was a sub-", "paragraph_id": "para_325" }, { "text": "stantial factor in causing” their injuries. See Burton v. E.I. du Pont de Nemours", "paragraph_id": "para_326" }, { "text": "& Co., 994 F.3d 791, 824, 827 (7th Cir. 2021) (emphasis added); see also Sum-", "paragraph_id": "para_327" }, { "text": "nicht v. Toyota Motor Sales, U.S.A., Inc., 360 N.W.2d 2, 11 (Wis. 1984). This", "paragraph_id": "para_328" }, { "text": "standard requires a showing “that the conduct has such an effect in pro-", "paragraph_id": "para_329" }, { "text": "ducing the injury as to lead a reasonable person to regard it as a cause,", "paragraph_id": "para_330" }, { "text": "using that word in the popular sense.” Pieper v. Neuendorf Transp. Co., 274", "paragraph_id": "para_331" }, { "text": "N.W.2d 674, 677 (Wis. 1979); see also Murphy, 2022 WI 109, ¶ 19 n.14 (Wis.", "paragraph_id": "para_332" }, { "text": "2022).", "paragraph_id": "para_333" }, { "text": "We need not consider what impact, if any, this different standard may", "paragraph_id": "para_334" }, { "text": "have on plaintiffs’ appeal because neither party raised the issue in their", "paragraph_id": "para_335" }, { "text": "briefs, thereby waiving any argument related to the standard. Addition-", "paragraph_id": "para_336" }, { "text": "ally, any failure to cite the correct substantive state law is immaterial to", "paragraph_id": "para_337" }, { "text": "our decision because we find the district court acted within its discretion", "paragraph_id": "para_338" }, { "text": "to exclude Dr. Freeman’s causation opinion for lack of reliability under", "paragraph_id": "para_339" }, { "text": "federal procedural law.", "paragraph_id": "para_340" }, { "text": "12 No. 23-3162", "paragraph_id": "para_341" }, { "text": "Whether plaintiffs succeeded in making this showing", "paragraph_id": "para_342" }, { "text": "comes down to their causation expert Dr. Michael Freeman.3", "paragraph_id": "para_343" }, { "text": "Dr. Freeman, after reviewing questionnaire responses from", "paragraph_id": "para_344" }, { "text": "plaintiffs, concluded that the defective garments generally", "paragraph_id": "para_345" }, { "text": "and specifically caused plaintiffs’ injuries. The district court", "paragraph_id": "para_346" }, { "text": "ruled that Dr. Freeman’s report and testimony were inadmis-", "paragraph_id": "para_347" }, { "text": "sible under Federal Rule of Evidence 702, a decision plaintiffs", "paragraph_id": "para_348" }, { "text": "challenge on appeal. The ruling had significant consequences", "paragraph_id": "para_349" }, { "text": "since, as with the question of defect, plaintiffs needed expert", "paragraph_id": "para_350" }, { "text": "testimony to assist the jury in deciding whether Lands’ End", "paragraph_id": "para_351" }, { "text": "caused plaintiffs’ personal injuries. See City of Cedarburg Light", "paragraph_id": "para_352" }, { "text": "& Water Comm’n, 148 N.W.2d at 16–17.", "paragraph_id": "para_353" }, { "text": "Rule 702 requires parties to demonstrate that expert wit-", "paragraph_id": "para_354" }, { "text": "ness testimony is “based on sufficient facts or data” and “the", "paragraph_id": "para_355" }, { "text": "product of reliable principles and methods,” and that the ex-", "paragraph_id": "para_356" }, { "text": "pert “reliabl[y] appli[ed] … the principles and methods to the", "paragraph_id": "para_357" }, { "text": "facts of the case.” Fed. R. Evid. 702. District courts play an im-", "paragraph_id": "para_358" }, { "text": "portant gatekeeping function under Rule 702 and Daubert to", "paragraph_id": "para_359" }, { "text": "ensure that an expert’s testimony “is not only relevant, but", "paragraph_id": "para_360" }, { "text": "3 As Lands’ End points out, the December 2023 amendments to Rule", "paragraph_id": "para_361" }, { "text": "702 alter its reliability subsection to require that “the expert’s opinion re-", "paragraph_id": "para_362" }, { "text": "flect[] a reliable application of the principles and methods to the facts of", "paragraph_id": "para_363" }, { "text": "the case.” Fed. R. Evid. 702. This amendment was made to clarify that", "paragraph_id": "para_364" }, { "text": "“questions of the sufficiency of an expert’s basis[]” go to admissibility just", "paragraph_id": "para_365" }, { "text": "as with questions of “the application of the expert’s methodology.” Fed.", "paragraph_id": "para_366" }, { "text": "R. Evid. 702 advisory committee’s note to 2023 amendment. Lands’ End,", "paragraph_id": "para_367" }, { "text": "seeing this amendment as helpful to its case, advocates for its application", "paragraph_id": "para_368" }, { "text": "and suggests that it is in tension with this court’s precedent distinguishing", "paragraph_id": "para_369" }, { "text": "between reliable methodology and “the quality of an expert’s data and", "paragraph_id": "para_370" }, { "text": "conclusions.” Manpower, Inc. v. Ins. Co. of Pa., 732 F.3d 796, 806 (7th Cir.", "paragraph_id": "para_371" }, { "text": "2013). Because our conclusion is the same even under Manpower’s more", "paragraph_id": "para_372" }, { "text": "strict formulation of the standard, we will apply the pre-amendment Rule", "paragraph_id": "para_373" }, { "text": "just as the district court did.", "paragraph_id": "para_374" }, { "text": "No. 23-3162 13", "paragraph_id": "para_375" }, { "text": "reliable.” 509 U.S. at 589. District courts enjoy “substantial lat-", "paragraph_id": "para_376" }, { "text": "itude in making the findings necessary to fulfill this gatekeep-", "paragraph_id": "para_377" }, { "text": "ing role,” but “must provide more than just conclusory state-", "paragraph_id": "para_378" }, { "text": "ments of admissibility.” Von Duprin LLC v. Major Holdings,", "paragraph_id": "para_379" }, { "text": "LLC, 12 F.4th 751, 772 (7th Cir. 2021).", "paragraph_id": "para_380" }, { "text": "In the next sections, we consider whether the district court", "paragraph_id": "para_381" }, { "text": "abused its discretion in finding that Dr. Freeman unreliably", "paragraph_id": "para_382" }, { "text": "applied epidemiological principles when forming his causa-", "paragraph_id": "para_383" }, { "text": "tion opinion. We ultimately conclude the district court did not", "paragraph_id": "para_384" }, { "text": "abuse its discretion by finding that Dr. Freeman: (1) failed to", "paragraph_id": "para_385" }, { "text": "apply reliable epidemiological methods to a dataset; and (2)", "paragraph_id": "para_386" }, { "text": "did not reliably apply two epidemiological causation frame-", "paragraph_id": "para_387" }, { "text": "works.", "paragraph_id": "para_388" }, { "text": "a. Data Analysis", "paragraph_id": "para_389" }, { "text": "We begin with Dr. Freeman’s data analysis. To form his", "paragraph_id": "para_390" }, { "text": "causation opinion, Dr. Freeman relied exclusively on data col-", "paragraph_id": "para_391" }, { "text": "lected from questionnaires sent to nearly one thousand Delta", "paragraph_id": "para_392" }, { "text": "employees.4 Lands’ End had prepared the questionnaire dur-", "paragraph_id": "para_393" }, { "text": "ing discovery in hopes of streamlining litigation. It asked re-", "paragraph_id": "para_394" }, { "text": "spondents to list what, if any, personal ailments they experi-", "paragraph_id": "para_395" }, { "text": "enced after wearing the new uniforms and the timing of their", "paragraph_id": "para_396" }, { "text": "symptoms.", "paragraph_id": "para_397" }, { "text": "The district court found the questionnaire was riddled", "paragraph_id": "para_398" }, { "text": "with design flaws that could produce biased results. For one,", "paragraph_id": "para_399" }, { "text": "only Delta employees who were already suing Lands’ End", "paragraph_id": "para_400" }, { "text": "and therefore had a financial interest in the outcome of the", "paragraph_id": "para_401" }, { "text": "4 Though the district court excluded Dr. Apple and Dr. Scheinman’s", "paragraph_id": "para_402" }, { "text": "causation opinions under Rule 702, plaintiffs only appeal the exclusion of", "paragraph_id": "para_403" }, { "text": "Dr. Freeman’s expert opinion. We therefore limit our analysis accordingly.", "paragraph_id": "para_404" }, { "text": "14 No. 23-3162", "paragraph_id": "para_405" }, { "text": "litigation received the questionnaires. Two, the question-", "paragraph_id": "para_406" }, { "text": "naires were created to streamline discovery, not to form the", "paragraph_id": "para_407" }, { "text": "basis of a multifaceted epidemiological study. Three, many", "paragraph_id": "para_408" }, { "text": "respondents gave erroneous or nonsensical responses, as Dr.", "paragraph_id": "para_409" }, { "text": "Freeman himself admitted at his deposition.", "paragraph_id": "para_410" }, { "text": "Dr. Freeman failed to recognize, let alone control for, any", "paragraph_id": "para_411" }, { "text": "of these shortcomings in his expert report. He only cursorily", "paragraph_id": "para_412" }, { "text": "acknowledged some of these issues during his deposition", "paragraph_id": "para_413" }, { "text": "when questioned by opposing counsel. This, to the district", "paragraph_id": "para_414" }, { "text": "court, constituted a failure to employ the routine methodol-", "paragraph_id": "para_415" }, { "text": "ogy of Dr. Freeman’s field, and it led the court to exclude his", "paragraph_id": "para_416" }, { "text": "causation opinions under Rule 702 and Daubert.", "paragraph_id": "para_417" }, { "text": "Plaintiffs argue that the district court improperly scruti-", "paragraph_id": "para_418" }, { "text": "nized their data’s quality rather than considering the reliabil-", "paragraph_id": "para_419" }, { "text": "ity of their expert’s methodology. We have indeed distin-", "paragraph_id": "para_420" }, { "text": "guished between Rule 702 challenges to the reliability of an", "paragraph_id": "para_421" }, { "text": "expert’s methodology and the reliability of an expert’s conclu-", "paragraph_id": "para_422" }, { "text": "sion. A district court is tasked under Rule 702 with “deter-", "paragraph_id": "para_423" }, { "text": "min[ing] that the expert used reliable methods,” but this obli-", "paragraph_id": "para_424" }, { "text": "gation “does not ordinarily extend to the reliability of the con-", "paragraph_id": "para_425" }, { "text": "clusions those methods produce—that is, whether the conclu-", "paragraph_id": "para_426" }, { "text": "sions are unimpeachable.” Stollings v. Ryobi Techs., Inc., 725", "paragraph_id": "para_427" }, { "text": "F.3d 753, 765 (7th Cir. 2013). District courts can “usurp[] the", "paragraph_id": "para_428" }, { "text": "role of the jury … if [they] unduly scrutinize[] the quality of", "paragraph_id": "para_429" }, { "text": "an expert’s data and conclusions rather than the reliability of", "paragraph_id": "para_430" }, { "text": "the methodology the expert employed.” Manpower, 732 F.3d", "paragraph_id": "para_431" }, { "text": "at 806. The line between data quality and methodological re-", "paragraph_id": "para_432" }, { "text": "liability “is not always an easy [one] to draw,” id., because", "paragraph_id": "para_433" }, { "text": "“conclusions and methodology are not entirely distinct from", "paragraph_id": "para_434" }, { "text": "one another,” Gen. Elec. Co. v. Joiner, 522 U.S. 136, 146 (1997).", "paragraph_id": "para_435" }, { "text": "No. 23-3162 15", "paragraph_id": "para_436" }, { "text": "But we encounter little difficulty here concluding that the", "paragraph_id": "para_437" }, { "text": "district court did not abuse its discretion in finding that Dr.", "paragraph_id": "para_438" }, { "text": "Freeman failed to employ the routine methodology of his", "paragraph_id": "para_439" }, { "text": "field.", "paragraph_id": "para_440" }, { "text": "As background, when faced with problems in their da-", "paragraph_id": "para_441" }, { "text": "tasets, epidemiologists “must identify potential biases and", "paragraph_id": "para_442" }, { "text": "analyze the amount or kind of error that might have been in-", "paragraph_id": "para_443" }, { "text": "duced by the bias.” Federal Judicial Center, Reference Manual", "paragraph_id": "para_444" }, { "text": "on Scientific Evidence 583 (3d ed.). Hence, epidemiologists in", "paragraph_id": "para_445" }, { "text": "the normal course would have produced an analysis that at", "paragraph_id": "para_446" }, { "text": "least acknowledged some of the data quality problems the", "paragraph_id": "para_447" }, { "text": "district court identified.", "paragraph_id": "para_448" }, { "text": "That is on full display in the Harvard Flight Attendant", "paragraph_id": "para_449" }, { "text": "Study Report that Dr. Freeman cites extensively in his report.", "paragraph_id": "para_450" }, { "text": "The study generally tracked the health outcomes of several", "paragraph_id": "para_451" }, { "text": "hundred flight attendants over several years. In the report,", "paragraph_id": "para_452" }, { "text": "epidemiologists compared the health outcomes of a group of", "paragraph_id": "para_453" }, { "text": "Alaska Airlines flight attendants who, like plaintiffs, alleged", "paragraph_id": "para_454" }, { "text": "their uniforms had made them sick against a control group.", "paragraph_id": "para_455" }, { "text": "Eileen McNeely et al., Symptoms Related to New Flight At-", "paragraph_id": "para_456" }, { "text": "tendant Uniforms, 927 BMC PUB. HEALTH 1 (2017). When com-", "paragraph_id": "para_457" }, { "text": "piling their research findings, the epidemiologists acknowl-", "paragraph_id": "para_458" }, { "text": "edged that the widespread complaints circulating among the", "paragraph_id": "para_459" }, { "text": "flight attendants regarding uniform-related adverse health", "paragraph_id": "para_460" }, { "text": "outcomes had the potential to increase symptom reporting", "paragraph_id": "para_461" }, { "text": "among their study participants. Id. at 5. The study authors", "paragraph_id": "para_462" }, { "text": "then noted that this bias risk was minimized by “the more", "paragraph_id": "para_463" }, { "text": "general purpose of the survey in which hundreds of data", "paragraph_id": "para_464" }, { "text": "points were gathered” about respondents’ health. Id.", "paragraph_id": "para_465" }, { "text": "Dr. Freeman did not attempt this minimal amount of", "paragraph_id": "para_466" }, { "text": "identifying or controlling for error. That goes to the heart of", "paragraph_id": "para_467" }, { "text": "16 No. 23-3162", "paragraph_id": "para_468" }, { "text": "the reliability of his methodology. Dr. Freeman’s professional", "paragraph_id": "para_469" }, { "text": "burden was clearly not an onerous one—we see from the", "paragraph_id": "para_470" }, { "text": "Harvard study that simply acknowledging potential", "paragraph_id": "para_471" }, { "text": "weaknesses in the data and considering a remedy may have", "paragraph_id": "para_472" }, { "text": "been sufficient. To satisfy Rule 702, Dr. Freeman did not have", "paragraph_id": "para_473" }, { "text": "to go to the lengths of collecting the questionnaire data", "paragraph_id": "para_474" }, { "text": "himself, reviewing plaintiffs’ medical records, or employing a", "paragraph_id": "para_475" }, { "text": "controlled study, though such measures would aid him on", "paragraph_id": "para_476" }, { "text": "cross-examination. Less was required but not done here.", "paragraph_id": "para_477" }, { "text": "Therefore, the district court did not abuse its discretion in", "paragraph_id": "para_478" }, { "text": "finding that Dr. Freeman failed to employ reliable data", "paragraph_id": "para_479" }, { "text": "analysis principles common to his field.", "paragraph_id": "para_480" }, { "text": "While we are able to affirm the district court’s decision to", "paragraph_id": "para_481" }, { "text": "grant summary judgment in Lands’ End’s favor on this", "paragraph_id": "para_482" }, { "text": "ground alone, we will discuss the remainder of plaintiffs’ cau-", "paragraph_id": "para_483" }, { "text": "sation arguments. We next consider whether Dr. Freeman re-", "paragraph_id": "para_484" }, { "text": "liably applied two epidemiological causation frameworks—", "paragraph_id": "para_485" }, { "text": "the Bradford-Hill criteria and Naranjo algorithm—for his cau-", "paragraph_id": "para_486" }, { "text": "sation opinions.", "paragraph_id": "para_487" }, { "text": "b. Bradford-Hill Criteria", "paragraph_id": "para_488" }, { "text": "To determine whether the garments could have caused", "paragraph_id": "para_489" }, { "text": "plaintiffs’ physical symptoms, Dr. Freeman used a “distilled”", "paragraph_id": "para_490" }, { "text": "three-step version of the Bradford-Hill analysis. The standard", "paragraph_id": "para_491" }, { "text": "Bradford-Hill analysis is a widely implemented nine-part ep-", "paragraph_id": "para_492" }, { "text": "idemiological framework used to determine whether a causal", "paragraph_id": "para_493" }, { "text": "relationship exists between a stimulus and symptomatic re-", "paragraph_id": "para_494" }, { "text": "sponse. See Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence 599–600; see", "paragraph_id": "para_495" }, { "text": "also In re Zoloft (Sertraline Hydrochloride) Prods. Liab. Litig., 858", "paragraph_id": "para_496" }, { "text": "F.3d 787, 795 (3d Cir. 2017) (finding the framework “generally", "paragraph_id": "para_497" }, { "text": "reliable”); Wendell v. GlaxoSmithKline LLC, 858 F.3d 1227, 1235", "paragraph_id": "para_498" }, { "text": "n.4 (9th Cir. 2017) (same).", "paragraph_id": "para_499" }, { "text": "No. 23-3162 17", "paragraph_id": "para_500" }, { "text": "Before conducting a Bradford-Hill analysis, an expert", "paragraph_id": "para_501" }, { "text": "must first conduct an associational analysis to determine", "paragraph_id": "para_502" }, { "text": "whether the stimulus and health response “occur together", "paragraph_id": "para_503" }, { "text": "more frequently than one would expect by chance.” Reference", "paragraph_id": "para_504" }, { "text": "Manual on Scientific Evidence 566. This is most often done by", "paragraph_id": "para_505" }, { "text": "comparing the health outcomes of those exposed to a toxic", "paragraph_id": "para_506" }, { "text": "substance with an unexposed control group. Id. at 218–19. Dr.", "paragraph_id": "para_507" }, { "text": "Freeman never engaged in this preliminary step before con-", "paragraph_id": "para_508" }, { "text": "ducting his distilled version of the Bradford-Hill analysis. The", "paragraph_id": "para_509" }, { "text": "district court found that this was a failure to reliably apply", "paragraph_id": "para_510" }, { "text": "clear epidemiological principles and was sufficient grounds", "paragraph_id": "para_511" }, { "text": "to exclude Dr. Freeman’s report.", "paragraph_id": "para_512" }, { "text": "Plaintiffs ask us to overlook Dr. Freeman’s oversight on", "paragraph_id": "para_513" }, { "text": "appeal. They argue that his passing reference to two instances", "paragraph_id": "para_514" }, { "text": "of alleged uniform-associated illness that struck Alaska Air-", "paragraph_id": "para_515" }, { "text": "lines and American Airlines flight attendants in 2011 and 2016", "paragraph_id": "para_516" }, { "text": "was a sufficient associational analysis. The district court rea-", "paragraph_id": "para_517" }, { "text": "sonably found this insufficient for two reasons.", "paragraph_id": "para_518" }, { "text": "First, and most importantly, there is no evidence that", "paragraph_id": "para_519" }, { "text": "Lands’ End manufactured or worked with the same garment", "paragraph_id": "para_520" }, { "text": "producers involved in making the flight attendant uniforms", "paragraph_id": "para_521" }, { "text": "for Alaska Airlines and American Airlines. Yet, Dr. Freeman", "paragraph_id": "para_522" }, { "text": "did not control for this variance as is necessary when compar-", "paragraph_id": "para_523" }, { "text": "ing association between multiple study groups. See Reference", "paragraph_id": "para_524" }, { "text": "Manual on Scientific Evidence 571.", "paragraph_id": "para_525" }, { "text": "Second, associational values normally are expressed as", "paragraph_id": "para_526" }, { "text": "numerical values calculated from one of several statistical for-", "paragraph_id": "para_527" }, { "text": "mulas. See id. at 566–71; see also McNeely, supra, at 6 (reporting", "paragraph_id": "para_528" }, { "text": "numerical association values). This is demonstrated in the", "paragraph_id": "para_529" }, { "text": "Harvard study. That study determined from Alaska Airlines", "paragraph_id": "para_530" }, { "text": "flight attendants’ self-reported health symptom data that", "paragraph_id": "para_531" }, { "text": "18 No. 23-3162", "paragraph_id": "para_532" }, { "text": "“flight attendant uniforms w[ere] associated with quantifia-", "paragraph_id": "para_533" }, { "text": "ble health effects.” See McNeely, supra, at 5–7. The study went", "paragraph_id": "para_534" }, { "text": "on to quantify the strength of those associations on a per-", "paragraph_id": "para_535" }, { "text": "symptom basis before undertaking its own causation analy-", "paragraph_id": "para_536" }, { "text": "sis. Id. Dr. Freeman’s report never similarly quantified the as-", "paragraph_id": "para_537" }, { "text": "sociation between garment exposure and any of plaintiffs’", "paragraph_id": "para_538" }, { "text": "personal injuries.", "paragraph_id": "para_539" }, { "text": "Beyond this preliminary step, Dr. Freeman’s report also", "paragraph_id": "para_540" }, { "text": "failed to reliably apply the Bradford-Hill criteria. The nine", "paragraph_id": "para_541" }, { "text": "Bradford-Hill variables are: (1) plausibility; (2) strength of", "paragraph_id": "para_542" }, { "text": "association; (3) consistency; (4) biological gradient (dose-", "paragraph_id": "para_543" }, { "text": "response relationship); (5) specificity of the association; (6)", "paragraph_id": "para_544" }, { "text": "analogy; (7) temporality; (8) experiment (cessation of", "paragraph_id": "para_545" }, { "text": "exposure); and (9) coherence. Austin Bradford-Hill, The", "paragraph_id": "para_546" }, { "text": "Environment and Disease: Association or Causation?, 58 PROC.", "paragraph_id": "para_547" }, { "text": "ROYAL SOC’Y MED. 295, 295–99 (1965). Instead of considering", "paragraph_id": "para_548" }, { "text": "these nine variables, Dr. Freeman employed a distilled test", "paragraph_id": "para_549" }, { "text": "that used three variables as stand-ins for the full Bradford-", "paragraph_id": "para_550" }, { "text": "Hill analysis. This tripartite analysis considered: “1) the", "paragraph_id": "para_551" }, { "text": "plausibility of the suspected causal relationship … ; 2) the", "paragraph_id": "para_552" }, { "text": "temporal aspects of the relationship … ; and 3) the likelihood", "paragraph_id": "para_553" }, { "text": "that an alternative cause other than the suspected cause", "paragraph_id": "para_554" }, { "text": "accounts for the observed relationship.”", "paragraph_id": "para_555" }, { "text": "The district court did not disqualify Dr. Freeman’s", "paragraph_id": "para_556" }, { "text": "analysis as unreliable merely because it lists fewer factors; we", "paragraph_id": "para_557" }, { "text": "will not either. The strict construction of a test is of less", "paragraph_id": "para_558" }, { "text": "concern so long as it faithfully applies reliable methodology.", "paragraph_id": "para_559" }, { "text": "See Etherton v. Owners Ins. Co., 829 F.3d 1209, 1218–23 (10th", "paragraph_id": "para_560" }, { "text": "Cir. 2016) (considering reliability of expert’s distilled", "paragraph_id": "para_561" }, { "text": "causation analysis). Nevertheless, we see no reason to undo", "paragraph_id": "para_562" }, { "text": "the district court’s conclusion that Dr. Freeman’s three-step", "paragraph_id": "para_563" }, { "text": "No. 23-3162 19", "paragraph_id": "para_564" }, { "text": "analysis falls short because it fails to sufficiently account for", "paragraph_id": "para_565" }, { "text": "the established Bradford-Hill criteria.", "paragraph_id": "para_566" }, { "text": "First, Dr. Freeman’s report does not discuss how the three", "paragraph_id": "para_567" }, { "text": "variables in his distilled analysis align with the nine in the", "paragraph_id": "para_568" }, { "text": "standard analysis. Dr. Freeman does not explain how plausi-", "paragraph_id": "para_569" }, { "text": "bility, temporality, and alternative causation alone account", "paragraph_id": "para_570" }, { "text": "for the other standard factors. And the academic articles that", "paragraph_id": "para_571" }, { "text": "Dr. Freeman relies on similarly fail to connect the dots be-", "paragraph_id": "para_572" }, { "text": "tween a distilled analysis and the standard framework.", "paragraph_id": "para_573" }, { "text": "Second, the articles Dr. Freeman cites apply distilled", "paragraph_id": "para_574" }, { "text": "Bradford-Hill analyses in epidemiological contexts rather", "paragraph_id": "para_575" }, { "text": "dissimilar from this case. Those studies applied a distilled", "paragraph_id": "para_576" }, { "text": "analysis in the study of vehicle crash trauma, arthritis,", "paragraph_id": "para_577" }, { "text": "fibromyalgia, and rotator-cuff injuries. Yet, Dr. Freeman does", "paragraph_id": "para_578" }, { "text": "not consider how those studies tend, or fail, to shed light on", "paragraph_id": "para_579" }, { "text": "the applicability of the truncated analysis to the toxic tort", "paragraph_id": "para_580" }, { "text": "arena.", "paragraph_id": "para_581" }, { "text": "Even still, plaintiffs argue that Dr. Freeman was not obli-", "paragraph_id": "para_582" }, { "text": "gated to consider each of the original nine Bradford-Hill fac-", "paragraph_id": "para_583" }, { "text": "tors because “there is no threshold number [of factors] that", "paragraph_id": "para_584" }, { "text": "must exist” to establish causation. Reference Manual on Scien-", "paragraph_id": "para_585" }, { "text": "tific Evidence 599–600. Though it is true that “[o]ne or more", "paragraph_id": "para_586" }, { "text": "factors may be absent even when a true causal relationship", "paragraph_id": "para_587" }, { "text": "exists,” this is only true where an expert has reliably applied", "paragraph_id": "para_588" }, { "text": "the Bradford-Hill analysis to begin with. Id. at 600. Plaintiffs’", "paragraph_id": "para_589" }, { "text": "argument that causation may be made out where only eight", "paragraph_id": "para_590" }, { "text": "of the nine variables are present does not bear on whether Dr.", "paragraph_id": "para_591" }, { "text": "Freeman reliably distilled the factors from nine down to three.", "paragraph_id": "para_592" }, { "text": "Therefore, we cannot say that the district court abused its dis-", "paragraph_id": "para_593" }, { "text": "cretion by highlighting Dr. Freeman’s failure to bridge the", "paragraph_id": "para_594" }, { "text": "20 No. 23-3162", "paragraph_id": "para_595" }, { "text": "analytical gap between the cited literature and the facts of this", "paragraph_id": "para_596" }, { "text": "case. See C.W., 807 F.3d at 836.", "paragraph_id": "para_597" }, { "text": "c. Naranjo Algorithm", "paragraph_id": "para_598" }, { "text": "Dr. Freeman also used another framework—the Naranjo", "paragraph_id": "para_599" }, { "text": "algorithm—to construct his general and specific causation", "paragraph_id": "para_600" }, { "text": "findings. The Naranjo algorithm is a test designed to deter-", "paragraph_id": "para_601" }, { "text": "mine whether a drug can cause a certain adverse reaction. The", "paragraph_id": "para_602" }, { "text": "algorithm consists of ten questions, the responses to which are", "paragraph_id": "para_603" }, { "text": "assigned a score. The questions ask, for example, whether", "paragraph_id": "para_604" }, { "text": "there were prior reports of similar adverse health reactions;", "paragraph_id": "para_605" }, { "text": "whether symptoms occurred following exposure and im-", "paragraph_id": "para_606" }, { "text": "proved with decreased exposure; whether alternative causa-", "paragraph_id": "para_607" }, { "text": "tions could explain the reaction; and if the toxins were de-", "paragraph_id": "para_608" }, { "text": "tected in blood or other bodily fluids. The sum of the individ-", "paragraph_id": "para_609" }, { "text": "ual scores then determines the strength of the causal relation-", "paragraph_id": "para_610" }, { "text": "ship, if one exists. Dr. Freeman modified the Naranjo algo-", "paragraph_id": "para_611" }, { "text": "rithm for his analysis and used many of the same findings and", "paragraph_id": "para_612" }, { "text": "data from his distilled Bradford-Hill analysis to find that the", "paragraph_id": "para_613" }, { "text": "garments generally and specifically caused plaintiffs’ injuries.", "paragraph_id": "para_614" }, { "text": "Lands’ End argued before the district court that the scien-", "paragraph_id": "para_615" }, { "text": "tific literature did not support the application of the Naranjo", "paragraph_id": "para_616" }, { "text": "algorithm outside of the adverse drug context, and that Dr.", "paragraph_id": "para_617" }, { "text": "Freeman inappropriately altered the analysis to favor plain-", "paragraph_id": "para_618" }, { "text": "tiffs’ preferred outcome. Plaintiffs argued in response that the", "paragraph_id": "para_619" }, { "text": "Naranjo algorithm is widely used, and that Dr. Freeman em-", "paragraph_id": "para_620" }, { "text": "ployed it as part of a totality-of-the-evidence analysis as laid", "paragraph_id": "para_621" }, { "text": "out in Milward v. Acuity Specialty Product Group, 639 F.3d 11,", "paragraph_id": "para_622" }, { "text": "17–18 (1st Cir. 2011). The district court did not acknowledge", "paragraph_id": "para_623" }, { "text": "or discuss Dr. Freeman’s general causation opinion based on", "paragraph_id": "para_624" }, { "text": "the Naranjo algorithm. The court did exclude his Naranjo al-", "paragraph_id": "para_625" }, { "text": "gorithm causation opinion on the grounds that Dr. Freeman", "paragraph_id": "para_626" }, { "text": "No. 23-3162 21", "paragraph_id": "para_627" }, { "text": "never undertook any of the six Milward steps involved in a", "paragraph_id": "para_628" }, { "text": "totality-of-the-evidence approach, and Dr. Freeman’s analysis", "paragraph_id": "para_629" }, { "text": "was plagued by the same uncritical use of the questionnaire", "paragraph_id": "para_630" }, { "text": "data we discussed earlier. See supra Part III.A.2.a.", "paragraph_id": "para_631" }, { "text": "Plaintiffs ask us to remand this case for the district court", "paragraph_id": "para_632" }, { "text": "to address whether Dr. Freeman reliably applied the Naranjo", "paragraph_id": "para_633" }, { "text": "algorithm in his alternative general causation analysis and in", "paragraph_id": "para_634" }, { "text": "his specific causation determination. While the district court", "paragraph_id": "para_635" }, { "text": "ought to have considered these issues in the first instance, re-", "paragraph_id": "para_636" }, { "text": "mand is unnecessary because plaintiffs have failed to carry", "paragraph_id": "para_637" }, { "text": "their burden as to the existence of a defect and as to causation", "paragraph_id": "para_638" }, { "text": "based on Dr. Freeman’s usage of the questionnaire data. See", "paragraph_id": "para_639" }, { "text": "O'Brien v. Caterpillar Inc., 900 F.3d 923, 928 (7th Cir. 2018) (we", "paragraph_id": "para_640" }, { "text": "may affirm summary judgment on any ground supported by", "paragraph_id": "para_641" }, { "text": "the record).", "paragraph_id": "para_642" }, { "text": "For these reasons, we affirm the district court’s exclusion", "paragraph_id": "para_643" }, { "text": "of the Andrews plaintiffs’ expert opinions on defect and cau-", "paragraph_id": "para_644" }, { "text": "sation and the ultimate grant of summary judgment in Lands’", "paragraph_id": "para_645" }, { "text": "End’s favor. That brings us to the Gilbert plaintiffs’ breach of", "paragraph_id": "para_646" }, { "text": "warranty claim.", "paragraph_id": "para_647" }, { "text": "B. Breach of Warranty", "paragraph_id": "para_648" }, { "text": "The Gilbert plaintiffs brought a breach of express war-", "paragraph_id": "para_649" }, { "text": "ranty claim under the contract that governed Delta’s purchase", "paragraph_id": "para_650" }, { "text": "of garments from Lands’ End—the Uniform Apparel Agree-", "paragraph_id": "para_651" }, { "text": "ment (“UAA”). Plaintiffs sought summary judgment as in-", "paragraph_id": "para_652" }, { "text": "tended beneficiaries under this contract, claiming that Lands’", "paragraph_id": "para_653" }, { "text": "End breached a provision of the UAA guaranteeing that “if at", "paragraph_id": "para_654" }, { "text": "any time, for any reason, … any actively employed Employee", "paragraph_id": "para_655" }, { "text": "is not 100% satisfied with their Products (even if they have", "paragraph_id": "para_656" }, { "text": "been washed, worn and/or embroidered), they can return", "paragraph_id": "para_657" }, { "text": "22 No. 23-3162", "paragraph_id": "para_658" }, { "text": "them at any time … for a refund or exchange.” The contract", "paragraph_id": "para_659" }, { "text": "mandated that “[a]ll returns and exchanges w[ould] be ac-", "paragraph_id": "para_660" }, { "text": "companied by a return/exchange form, as mutually agreed by", "paragraph_id": "para_661" }, { "text": "the parties.” Plaintiffs argue that Lands’ End breached this", "paragraph_id": "para_662" }, { "text": "provision by failing to issue refunds despite plaintiffs’ blanket", "paragraph_id": "para_663" }, { "text": "demand letter requesting them.", "paragraph_id": "para_664" }, { "text": "Lands’ End cross-moved for summary judgment on this", "paragraph_id": "para_665" }, { "text": "claim, arguing that they could not have breached the express", "paragraph_id": "para_666" }, { "text": "warranty provision given that plaintiffs failed to return their", "paragraph_id": "para_667" }, { "text": "garments as required under the UAA’s terms. The district", "paragraph_id": "para_668" }, { "text": "court sided with Lands’ End. The court noted that the unre-", "paragraph_id": "para_669" }, { "text": "futed evidentiary record showed that Lands’ End always is-", "paragraph_id": "para_670" }, { "text": "sued refunds or exchanges to Delta employees who returned", "paragraph_id": "para_671" }, { "text": "their garments and plaintiffs failed to submit any evidence es-", "paragraph_id": "para_672" }, { "text": "tablishing that Delta employees who returned their garments", "paragraph_id": "para_673" }, { "text": "were denied a refund.", "paragraph_id": "para_674" }, { "text": "On appeal, plaintiffs argue that the district court erred by", "paragraph_id": "para_675" }, { "text": "requiring plaintiffs’ strict compliance with the UAA’s require-", "paragraph_id": "para_676" }, { "text": "ment that plaintiffs return their uniform because the con-", "paragraph_id": "para_677" }, { "text": "tract’s terms were confidential, so plaintiffs could not have", "paragraph_id": "para_678" }, { "text": "complied. They also argue that the requirement runs afoul of", "paragraph_id": "para_679" }, { "text": "the Uniform Commercial Code’s bar on unreasonable re-", "paragraph_id": "para_680" }, { "text": "straints of express warranties. We conclude that summary", "paragraph_id": "para_681" }, { "text": "judgment in Lands’ End’s favor is appropriate.", "paragraph_id": "para_682" }, { "text": "Before addressing the merits, we must determine which", "paragraph_id": "para_683" }, { "text": "state’s substantive law to apply. The UAA had a choice of law", "paragraph_id": "para_684" }, { "text": "provision mandating the application of Delaware law. Be-", "paragraph_id": "para_685" }, { "text": "cause the district court had diversity subject-matter jurisdic-", "paragraph_id": "para_686" }, { "text": "tion, it was required to apply Wisconsin choice of law rules to", "paragraph_id": "para_687" }, { "text": "determine what law to apply. Tanner v. Juniper Realty Corp.,", "paragraph_id": "para_688" }, { "text": "433 F.3d 913, 915 (7th Cir. 2006). Wisconsin law honors choice", "paragraph_id": "para_689" }, { "text": "No. 23-3162 23", "paragraph_id": "para_690" }, { "text": "of law provisions in duly enacted contracts so long as doing", "paragraph_id": "para_691" }, { "text": "so would not run afoul of the state’s public policies. Drinkwa-", "paragraph_id": "para_692" }, { "text": "ter v. Am. Fam. Mut. Ins. Co., 2006 WI 56, ¶ 25. We agree with", "paragraph_id": "para_693" }, { "text": "the district court that no such policy concerns exist here, so,", "paragraph_id": "para_694" }, { "text": "like the district court, we will apply Delaware law and Dela-", "paragraph_id": "para_695" }, { "text": "ware’s version of the Uniform Commercial Code.", "paragraph_id": "para_696" }, { "text": "Under Delaware law, a beneficiary’s rights can be “ex-", "paragraph_id": "para_697" }, { "text": "pressly or impliedly limit[ed]” by the terms of an agreement.", "paragraph_id": "para_698" }, { "text": "Crispo v. Musk, 304 A.3d 567, 573 (Del. Ch. 2023). The same is", "paragraph_id": "para_699" }, { "text": "true of express warranty provisions so long as limitations on", "paragraph_id": "para_700" }, { "text": "the exercise of such warranties are reasonable. See 6 Del. C.", "paragraph_id": "para_701" }, { "text": "§ 2-316(1) (“Words or conduct relevant to the creation of an", "paragraph_id": "para_702" }, { "text": "express warranty and words or conduct tending to negate or", "paragraph_id": "para_703" }, { "text": "limit warranty shall be construed wherever reasonable as con-", "paragraph_id": "para_704" }, { "text": "sistent with each other.”). We have observed in other contexts", "paragraph_id": "para_705" }, { "text": "that this requirement “has been understood to forbid the com-", "paragraph_id": "para_706" }, { "text": "plete negation of an express warranty.” Bushendorf v. Freight-", "paragraph_id": "para_707" }, { "text": "liner Corp., 13 F.3d 1024, 1027 (7th Cir. 1993). After all, “a", "paragraph_id": "para_708" }, { "text": "clause in the same contract disclaiming [an express warranty]", "paragraph_id": "para_709" }, { "text": "… suggests some deep confusion which may warrant repara-", "paragraph_id": "para_710" }, { "text": "tive efforts by the court.” Id.", "paragraph_id": "para_711" }, { "text": "The UAA’s language easily passes muster under these", "paragraph_id": "para_712" }, { "text": "standards. The conditions precedent to a refund—that plain-", "paragraph_id": "para_713" }, { "text": "tiffs return their garments and fill out a form—are not so on-", "paragraph_id": "para_714" }, { "text": "erous that they completely negate the express warranty. Nei-", "paragraph_id": "para_715" }, { "text": "ther are the conditions unreasonable limitations on the war-", "paragraph_id": "para_716" }, { "text": "ranty.", "paragraph_id": "para_717" }, { "text": "Plaintiffs make much of the fact that they were not shown", "paragraph_id": "para_718" }, { "text": "the UAA’s terms. But it is common practice to condition a re-", "paragraph_id": "para_719" }, { "text": "fund on the return of the sold goods. That is borne out by the", "paragraph_id": "para_720" }, { "text": "fact that many Delta employees knew to return their uniforms", "paragraph_id": "para_721" }, { "text": "24 No. 23-3162", "paragraph_id": "para_722" }, { "text": "in exchange for a refund without being made aware of the", "paragraph_id": "para_723" }, { "text": "contract’s terms. Further, plaintiffs’ counsel certainly became", "paragraph_id": "para_724" }, { "text": "aware of the UAA’s terms during this litigation given that", "paragraph_id": "para_725" }, { "text": "they brought claims based on the contract’s terms in their op-", "paragraph_id": "para_726" }, { "text": "erative complaint. Yet, counsel appears to have failed to ad-", "paragraph_id": "para_727" }, { "text": "vise their clients to pursue this expedient route to relief de-", "paragraph_id": "para_728" }, { "text": "spite Lands’ End stating in its response to plaintiffs’ demand", "paragraph_id": "para_729" }, { "text": "letter that all plaintiffs would receive refunds upon return of", "paragraph_id": "para_730" }, { "text": "their garments.", "paragraph_id": "para_731" }, { "text": "For these reasons, summary judgment on this claim was", "paragraph_id": "para_732" }, { "text": "appropriate.", "paragraph_id": "para_733" }, { "text": "III", "paragraph_id": "para_734" }, { "text": "In sum, we affirm the grant of summary judgment to", "paragraph_id": "para_735" }, { "text": "Lands’ End on the Andrews plaintiffs’ personal injury claims.", "paragraph_id": "para_736" }, { "text": "None of plaintiffs’ experts offered testimony establishing that", "paragraph_id": "para_737" }, { "text": "the uniforms were defective, and the district court did not", "paragraph_id": "para_738" }, { "text": "abuse its discretion by excluding Dr. Freeman’s testimony af-", "paragraph_id": "para_739" }, { "text": "ter finding that he uncritically relied on faulty data in reach-", "paragraph_id": "para_740" }, { "text": "ing his causation opinions.", "paragraph_id": "para_741" }, { "text": "Summary judgment in Lands’ Ends favor on the Gilbert", "paragraph_id": "para_742" }, { "text": "plaintiffs’ breach of warranty claims was also appropriate be-", "paragraph_id": "para_743" }, { "text": "cause plaintiffs failed to abide by the warranty’s reasonable", "paragraph_id": "para_744" }, { "text": "terms. 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